Church Life and Traditions: The Mass

When two or three are gathered together in my name there I am in their midst.

Matt 18:20

For I received from the Lord what I also handed on to you, that the Lord Jesus, on the night he was handed over, took bread, and, after he had given thanks, broke it and said, “This is my body that is for you. Do this in remembrance of me.”

In the same way also the cup, after supper, saying, “This cup is the new covenant in my blood. Do this, as often as you drink it, in remembrance of me.”

Paul’s First Letter to the Church in Corinth (Chapter 11, vv23-25)

Christ is always present in His Church, especially in her liturgical celebrations. He is present in the sacrifice of the Mass 

Second Vatican Council –  Sacrosanctum Concilium 7
Contents
  1. What is the Mass
  2. History
  3. Theology of the Mass

In our discussion of the Second Vatican Council we noted how the first topic that the Council considered was the revision of the liturgy and in particular the introduction of the use of the vernacular (local language) for the Mass rather than the Latin which had been used for 1500 years (at least in the West).

In Catholic circles there has been a great deal of focus on the language and precise wording of the Mass. Since the Mass is so central in the Catholic tradition this focus is hardly surprising, but an undue concern with detail of form and language can easily obscure the more dramatic fact about the Mass which is how little it has changed since the earliest days of the church.

For many Catholics there is also a danger that the familiarity of the Mass, even with the changes since the Council, can cause us to overlook just how significant it is, and how it encapsulates everything that is foundational in our Christian understanding. There is also a widespread recognition that the Mass has been one of the central points of controversy between Catholics and other Christians, and we will explore that issue in more detail when we consider the Reformation. For now we will consider the Mass from within our Catholic tradition, leaving aside controversy for the moment, and seeking to appreciate both the timeless quality and the contemporary, personal challenge that are both present in this ritual.

What is the Mass

We may refer to the Mass[1] as a ritual, for so it is. Rituals are foundational in any human society from ancient to modern. They provide meaning and validate shared experience for a community. They are not necessarily religious as such (for example sporting events are often hugely important rituals) but provoke deep emotion and attachment. ‘Ritual’ has sometimes taken on a connotation as “dull and boring” but it is really the exact opposite of that. In a Church context, much of the liturgical innovation since the Second Vatican Council has sought to enhance the value of the Mass as ritual – to make it more engaging, more meaningful, more personal and more communal. Whether it has always been successful is a matter of debate, and in some respects an issue of personal taste.

We also claim that the Mass is more than a ritual. In some way it is linked to the presence of God in the world, the continuing presence of Christ and the Spirit, and specifically to the actions of Jesus at and around the time of his death. “Christ is always present in His Church, especially in her liturgical celebrations. He is present in the sacrifice of the Mass”[2]. These are deep issues, amongst the most profound in our faith. We will approach them gradually, starting with the practical. The Mass has a complex structure with many layers of meaning. If we try to jump directly to the deepest level we risk missing our target.

Current form and structure

The structure and content of the Mass is defined in the “Roman Missal”, which is produced by Congregation for Divine Worship in the Vatican and then translated by each national bishops conference.[3] The Vatican has been at pains to ensure that a very high degree of standardization is maintained in the form and practice of the Mass. While this can seem overzealous it is also understandable that, since the Mass is the central expression of Catholic faith and identity, the institutional Church has a strong desire not to allow variability to lead to fragmentation, not simply of worship, but of the core beliefs that underpin this worship.

  1. THE INTRODUCTORY RITES
    • Entrance, Greeting, Act of Penitence, Kyrie, Gloria, Collect
  2. THE LITURGY OF THE WORD 
    • Readings from Sacred Scripture (three on Sunday, two on weekdays). 
    • The homily
    • Profession of Faith (Creed)
    • Prayer of the Faithful (Bidding Prayers)
  3. THE LITURGY OF THE EUCHARIST
    • The Preparation of the Gifts
      • The Prayer over the Offerings
    • The Eucharistic Prayer:
      • Thanksgiving (Preface)
      • Acclamation (Sanctus)
      • Epiclesis: invocation of Holy Spirit that the gifts be consecrated, that is, become Christ’s Body and Blood.
      • Institution narrative and consecration
      • Anamnesis: (Profession of faith)
      • Offering
      • Intercessions
      • Final doxology
    • The Communion Rite
      • The Lord’s Prayer
      • The Rite of Peace
      • The Fraction
      • Communion
  4. THE CONCLUDING RITES

The basic structure of the Mass consists of two parts: the  liturgy of the Word and the liturgy of the Eucharist. These reflect two of the ways in which Christ is considered to be present with us (When two or three are gathered in my name I am there in their midst[4]) – via the Word of God as expressed in the Bible and via the Eucharist, which is the presence of Christ as described in His last meal with his disciples (“this is my body; this is my blood”). The two part structure is preceded by a short introduction, and ended with an even shorter conclusion. Each of these two parts is also divided into smaller elements, as laid out in the Roman Missal. The Missal includes not only the words to be used for the Mass but also instructions for the actions and many supporting directives (known as “rubrics”).

With regard to the bible readings, the liturgy of the Word always includes at least one from the Gospels. This is preceded typically by one from the Hebrew Scriptures, and on Sundays one from the Epistles[5]. During Eastertide these may alternatively be from the Acts of the Apostles and Revelations. After the first reading there is a Psalm, intended to be recited in a traditional style with a response after each verse. 

The readings follow a three year cycle which allows for a large proportion of the Bible to be read during Mass, and a considerable variety over the years. One of the organizing principles of the cycle is that each is based on one of the so-called ‘synoptic[6]’ gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) which is read roughly in order, while allowing for fairly frequent diversions to fit with another major organizing principle, the Liturgical Year. The gospel of John is particularly used during the Easter season. The reading from Hebrew scripture is, at least on Sunday, intended to relate thematically to the Gospel, while the reading from the Epistles follows week on week the sequence of the letter being used (and thus typically does not have a thematic link to the Gospel).

Since the standardization of the Mass goes beyond just the words, let’s also note a few of the other details related to the celebration. Since the Mass is intended to be a group activity there are instructions for posture (when to sit, stand and kneel) so that the attendees act together in that respect. There are also general instructions regarding the use of music, which is generally encouraged as a key element in creating the appropriate character for a communal celebration. One other aspect of the Mass which may seem curious to non-Catholics, although is also common in Orthodox churches, is the use of special clothing for the priest, and perhaps for other ministers. The priest typically wears three “non-standard” items of clothing: an alb (a white, full-length, tunic garment), a stole (a type of scarf), and a chasuble (a poncho-like cloak). These evolved from the clothing of the late Roman empire. While it may seem odd that the Church chooses to celebrate in the costume of a long gone time, the idea that special occasions deserve special clothing is certainly not strange, as we see at occasions ranging from weddings to Halloween. 

While a Mass may be celebrated anywhere, typically it will be in a special (public) place, again emphasizing the communal nature of the activity.

These more superficial aspects of the Mass don’t however take us very far towards the profound issue with which we started this section – in what way does the Mass link us to Jesus and the reality of God’s presence in the world. We initially identified two ways: God’s presence via His words expressed in the Bible (Liturgy of the Word) and His Son’s presence in the bread and wine (Liturgy of the Eucharist). Additionally He is present in the person of the priest continuing the action of the Last Supper (“do this in remembrance of me”). Finally he is present through the entire assembly, who are gathered in His name. 

The various sections of the Mass are intended to bring out each of these aspects. Thus the Mass is the most important thing the Church does: “every liturgical celebration, because it is an action of Christ the priest and of His Body which is the Church, is a sacred action surpassing all others; no other action of the Church can equal its efficacy by the same title and to the same degree.”[7] 

To explore this further we will look first at how the Mass has evolved from the beginning to the form we just outlined, and then address the deeper questions of how to understand what is going on in the Mass.

History

Having considered in rather bland and mechanistic terms the current structure and form of the Mass, a historical perspective can help us understand how much is indeed ancient, and connects us directly with the time of Christ.

Early Church

From the earliest days of the church Christians met on Sundays to share a meal (“gathered to break bread”[8]). Paul describes in some detail for the Corinthians[9] how he received precise instructions regarding this ritual, which linked directly back to Jesus’ last meal. This meal seems to have been regarded more as an expression of community solidarity (as might a birthday party for us, or the original Passover meal) than as a form of worship. For the Jerusalem Christians at least worship would have been associated with the Temple, until it was destroyed by the Romans in AD 70. Early Christians continued to attend Synagogue for other forms of ritual prayer.

By 150 the basic form of a ritual very similar to the mass was established. Justin Martyr writes:

…on the day called Sunday there is a meeting in one place of those who live in cities or the country, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read as long as time permits. When the reader has finished, the president in a discourse urges and invites [us] to the imitation of these noble things. Then we all stand up together and offer prayers. And, as said before, when we have finished the prayer, bread is brought, and wine and water, and the president similarly sends up prayers and thanksgivings to the best of his ability, and the congregation assents, saying the Amen; the distribution, and reception of the consecrated [elements] by each one, takes place and they are sent to the absent by the deacons.

First Apology

Here we have reading from Scripture, a Homily, Preparation of Gifts, Consecration, and Communion.

At this time there would have been no special building (“church” in that sense), and this gathering would simply have been at some convenient home. The physical structures we associate with churches came into existence after 313 when the Roman Emperor Constantine announced toleration of Christianity. Constantine himself then built churches including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, and the original Saint Peter’s Basilica in Rome.

Up to 600 there was much evolution of structure and prayers, and considerable diversity of rites, including the Gallican rite, Ambrosian rite, Celtic Rite and Roman rite. Pope Gregory I (590-604) made a general revision of the liturgy of the Mass and this formed the basis for the standardization introduced by the emperor Charlemagne around 800, when he ordered that “Roman” rite to be used throughout his domains (most of Western Europe). Some elements of the preceding Gallican rites continued, e.g. the blessing of candles, ashes, psalms, and much of the Holy Week ritual. The recitation of the Creed after the Gospel is attributed to the influence of Emperor Henry II (c.1000). 

Medieval times

Local variation continued throughout Middle Ages (all claiming to be “Roman”). During this time the Eastern rites diverged from the Western, but we should note that the distinction between different forms of liturgy is not coincident with the theological and ecclesiastic divisions between “Roman” catholicism and the Orthodox Churches.

Although some change in the content of the Mass occurred after the time of Pope Gregory, the changes of the Middle Ages were less in the content and more in the way the Mass was used and understood. Perhaps the most significant change was to regard each Mass as a distinct act with individual value – thus “if one is good, two is better”. This led to a huge increase in the number of Masses said, often many per day by each priest (and can also be seen in the large number of chapels included in the design of medieval churches). The associated focus on the priest as the primary participant in the Mass, to the extent that a Mass could be said with only a single priest and no other participants, created a view of the Mass as an action of the priest. Other people became onlookers rather than participants. Communion became very infrequent for anyone other than the priest. The Mass thus became either an individual priestly action (for which he was paid) or a grand spectacle, often with elaborate music, seemingly designed more for the display of social distinction than communal participation. 

While the excesses of the time were recognized, for example in restrictions in the number of masses per day that a priest could say, and the requirement for everyone to receive the Eucharist at least once per year, the idea of a communal meal was for the most part lost. The meaning of the Mass was associated more with the objects involved, notably the priest and the bread and wine, than the action (sharing a meal).

Reformation

At the Reformation the Mass became a focus for controversy. Given both the significance of the Mass as vehicle to express the theological understanding of the church and the economic factors surrounding it (payment per mass), this is hardly surprising. In Lutheran and Anglican Churches the form of the Mass was not greatly changed, although there was greater diversity in interpretation. More radical Reformers displaced the Mass with a focus on Scripture reading and preaching. 

Following the reformation the Catholic Church became even more concerned to “defend” the Mass as the only legitimate form of worship and to prevent any deviation in the norms of practice. Pope Pius V standardized the Roman Missal in 1570 following the Council of Trent – this is known as the Tridentine Mass. This changed only slightly thereafter – the Counter-Reformation  in effect “froze” the Mass from the late Middle Ages.  

Modern

Given that the content and structure of the Mass has really changed surprisingly little since the Second Century, the more recent evolution of the Mass should be viewed more though the lens of participation and interpretation, than words and language (as we will do in the final section of this chapter). Nevertheless these issues are connected, and as we noted previously the “renewal” of the Church desired by Pope John XXIII and the fathers of the Second Vatican Council was expressed first in renewal of the liturgy.

The Mass of Pope Paul VI is the liturgy of the Catholic Mass of the Roman Rite as revised after the Second Vatican Council, following the Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy “Sacrosanctum Concilium”.  It was introduced in 1970 and has had slight modifications since.

The major changes from the Tridentine mass were:

  1. Use of vernacular language.
  2. Many prayers which were previously said silently by priest are now recited.
  3. Reorientation of altar, priest, and tabernacle.
  4. Communion under both kinds became the norm
  5. New lectionary greatly increased proportion of Bible read at Mass (from about 1% of Old Testament and 17% of New Testament, to 14% and 72%)
  6. Three additional Eucharist Prayers (with the previous “Roman Canon” being Eucharistic Prayer Number 1)
  7. Homily (re-)introduced.
  8. Use of Lay ministers – readers (Lectors), and Eucharistic ministers (extraordinary ministers of Holy Communion).

Overall the fundamental change was in the nature of participation: from a view of the mass as having a “celebrant” and others present being for the most part observers, and often having no participation at all (hence the practice of saying other private devotions such as the Rosary during Mass); to active participation by all with the priest as “presider over the assembly”. This is much closer to the spirit of the communal celebration describes in Acts and by Paul.

Theology of the Mass

The Mass is not simply a defining characteristic of Catholic behavior, it is central in Catholic faith. In the words of the Second Vatical Council:  

For the liturgy, “through which the work of our redemption is accomplished,” most of all in the divine sacrifice of the Eucharist, is the outstanding means whereby the faithful may express in their lives, and manifest to others, the mystery of Christ and the real nature of the true Church.

… the liturgy is the summit toward which the activity of the Church is directed; at the same time it is the font from which all her power flows.

Sacrosanctum Concilium 2

The Council also emphasized that the Mass is the action of a community, not an individual activity: 

Liturgical services are not private functions, but are celebrations of the Church, which is the “sacrament of unity,” namely, the holy people united and ordered under their bishops. …

It is to be stressed that whenever rites, … make provision for communal celebration involving the presence and active participation of the faithful, this way of celebrating them is to be preferred, so far as possible, to a celebration that is individual and quasi-private.

This applies with especial force to the celebration of Mass and the administration of the sacraments… 

Sacrosanctum Concilium 26-27

Such statements however still focus attention on the action of the Mass rather than on its meaning or significance. Why is the Mass so central?  What is going on in a Mass beyond the obvious actions and recitations?  Assuming we don’t fall into the trivial error of considering the Mass as akin to some sort of magic incantation, how can it have the power we ascribe to it?

As we dig into these deep questions, the Mass may be considered in three ways: as sacrifice, as sacrament, as presence. 

Sacrifice

Sacrifice is a tricky idea for us. Often it is considered as a negative “giving something away” – we lose something in a sacrifice. However in the context of Church worship, and more generally in our relationship with God (going back to the earliest days of the Hebrew people), the emphasis is more on thanksgiving than loss. Yes, something is given up, but in the spirit of giving back, rather than giving away. It is the completion of an exchange – not a penance or compensation, but more a gift of appreciation. I have given something – sacrificed it – but because I want to acknowledge what I have been given (and the originating gift is far greater than my small acknowledgement of gratitude). It was also fundamental in Jewish tradition and the early church that sacrifice was a communal act – in the Hebrew Scriptures it is “the people” who make the sacrifice, even if that action was formalized in the role of the (High) priest, particularly in later times. The High Priest acted on behalf of the people.

In Jewish tradition the idea and practice of sacrifice was central. It is repeatedly emphasized throughout the Hebrew Scriptures, and at the time of Christ was an almost industrialized process (as is illustrated in Christ’s intervention with the merchants and money lenders at the Temple in Jerusalem). However sacrifice was not unique to the Jewish tradition and was a common practice and understanding throughout the Classical world (and apparently found in just about every early human society). Typically sacrifice involved the return of a portion of the food received from the earth (meat, grain, wine, oil) by burning or pouring in ritual places. Since sacrifice involved food (as the primary, and frequently the only) commodity available, sacrifice and “Holy meals” are often linked (the Passover meal is a good example). In many cases worshippers consumed part of what was delivered or offered as sacrifice – thus we have Paul giving guidance to the Corinthians about eating food offered to Roman idols.

But why is any of this relevant to the Mass? In what sense is the Mass a sacrifice? Even more directly, if the Mass is a sacrifice, then what is being sacrificed?

The first answer is that Christ is the sacrifice. This was perspective of the early Church, and strongly emphasized by Paul. This idea needs to be viewed through the lens of Jewish understanding that the sacrifice was returning to God what God had given – a recognition of God’s bounty. It was subsequently extended in Medieval times with a different perspective on the exchange, more associated with paying back in kind for an offense committed (as in “blood money”).[10]

The Second Vatican Council also emphasized that the worshipping Christian community was sacrificed – in the words of Eucharistic Prayer III “make us an everlasting gift [sacrifice] to you”.  As the Council expressed it:

The Church, earnestly desires that Christ’s faithful, when present at this mystery of faith, should not be there as strangers or silent spectators; on the contrary, … they should take part in the sacred action conscious of what they are doing, with devotion and full collaboration. … by offering the Immaculate Victim, not only through the hands of the priest, but also with him, they should learn also to offer themselves; through Christ the Mediator, they should be drawn day by day into ever more perfect union with God and with each other, so that finally God may be all in all.

Sacrosanctum Concilium 48 (emphasis added)

The meal then becomes a natural part of what is now seen as a recognition of an exchange. Thus the receiving of Communion cannot be separated from the act of sacrifice. The Communion is also by definition a shared action (‘communion’ meaning ‘jointly’ or ‘together’). By eating the consecrated bread we are joined to Christ, strengthened in our relationship to him, and in our relationship to one another. 

Finally we should note that Christ’s sacrifice was “once, and for all”.[11] It cannot be repeated. So the Mass is not a repetition of Christ’s sacrifice, but a participation in it. We see ourselves as participating in the same action as Jesus and His disciples at their Last Supper, and with Jesus on His cross. And perhaps most significantly in His resurrection – as Paul notes: “if we have died with him we will rise with him”[12]

In this way the Mass goes beyond the old ideas of sacrifice to a new understanding of the relationship between God and humankind – a relationship not of (unequal) exchange, but of unity and identity.

Sacrament

Beyond the idea of sacrifice – a widespread ancient practice, as we have noted – the Mass can also be viewed as a sacrament – a more ‘modern’ Christian concept. In the Catholic Church there is much emphasis on the recognition of ‘the’ seven sacraments. But this does not exhaust the idea of sacrament. We also speak of the Church itself as a sacrament.[13] And the Mass is a sacrament in the same sense – an outward sign of an inner reality.[14] 

Another way of expressing this is that a sacrament is like a window onto a deeper reality, or perhaps better, a door that opens to a deeper reality. A sacrament is not simply a sign or a symbol, it actually changes something in reality. The clearest example is, perhaps, marriage. As a secular event it is a legal process – and even at that level it certainly changes things. As a sacrament it changes the nature of the relationship between two people so that relationship is unlike any other. Baptism equally brings us into a new and different relationship with God – it’s not just a symbolic washing.  The Mass, as indicated in its multi-part structure, contains many different sacramental elements: blessing (for us), gift of the Holy Spirit, purification, forgiveness of sins, praise, and more. 

Sacrifice perhaps emphasizes the external orientation – what is the Mass doing in relation to the world around? Sacrament emphasizes the internal – what is the Mass doing to me. Sacrament also introduces another important concept, mystery. A sacrament points to a deeper reality that we accept cannot be fully understood. This idea cuts across the grain of a modern scientific understanding, at least in a naive view of modern science. This is not the place to discuss the relationship of science and religion or faith, but it is fairly clear that as Christians we believe that there are things we hold to be true which we cannot fully explain or justify in human terms.

Presence

Let us turn finally to to the issue of presence. What do we mean when we say Christ is present in the Mass? More specifically what do we claim by the “real presence” of Christ?

We have already noted that there a four distinct ways in which we see Christ as present in the Mass. The one that causes controversy between Protestant Christians and  Catholics (and Orthodox) is the idea of the presence of Jesus in the bread and the wine. This apparently literal interpretation of Jesus’ words about the bread and wine and his body and blood has caused great difficulties, although when theologians have dug into this topic some at least have found that the difficulties are more in semantics and philosophy than in belief or value.

The core of the Catholic understanding is that there is more than symbolism in the relationship of the “consecrated elements” to the body and blood of Christ. Real in this context means “present as an objective reality”, not dependent on the attitude of mind of observers. Until the reformation there was no question that the Eucharist involved eating and drinking the body and blood of Christ. Subsequent polemics (on all sides) have obscured that the purpose of the Mass is not to bring about the real presence, as if in some magic trick, but to enable the sacrifice – to make us true participants in the life and death of Jesus. What is unique about the Mass is not the presence, but the sacrifice.

As a focus grew in the medieval (Western) church on the “how” of the real presence, coupled with the objectification of the mass (as mentioned above) the idea of ‘Transubstantiation’ was developed as a way to “explain” the relationship between  of bread and wine (which obviously continued to exist, by any understanding) and the body and blood (as described by Jesus). This uses the philosophy of Aristotle – which distinguishes “substance” from “accidents” (appearances) – hence trans-substantion: change of the substance while the appearance remans the same. While the Second Vatican Council noted the term, the usefulness of this particular philosophical perspective for us may be limited. We may also note that (Eastern) Orthodox tradition, which the Roman Catholic Church accepts as preserving a true understanding of the Eucharist[15] prefers to focus on the mystery and doesn’t pursue ideas such as “what really happens to the bread and wine”. 

Ultimately the Mass is an action – it’s about what we do, not about the objects involved. As an action it is identified both with the action of Christ, and as a part of our continuous actions as followers of Christ – which is why the Mass finishes with “Go and serve…”. As we noted in our introduction, that is the source of its name.

Questions for Consideration

[1] The name “mass” comes from the final words in Latin: Ite missa est. This is usually translated as ‘Go, the mass is ended’ but this is a backwards translation. The original meaning of missa in old Latin is debated. The phrase meant something more like ‘Go, you are dismissed’.

Benedict XVI in Sacramentum Caritatis (2007) noted: “In antiquity, missa simply meant ‘dismissal’. In Christian usage, however, it gradually took on a deeper meaning. The word ‘dismissal’ has come to imply a ‘mission’. These few words succinctly express the missionary nature of the Church”.

[2] Second Vatican Council –  Sacrosanctum Concilium 7

[3] For the English speaking countries the translation is undertaken by a single body, the International Commission on English in the Liturgy (ICEL), on behalf of the various national bishops conferences.

[4] Matt 18:20

[5] One of the letters from Paul or other early writers which are included in the New Testament.

[6] This term reflects the fact that these three Gospels have a broadly similar structure and content, unlike that of the Gospel of John which is much more different.

[7] Second Vatican Council –  Sacrosanctum Concilium 7

[8] Acts 20:7

[9] 1 Cor 11:23-26

[10] Although this idea is also found in Paul to a degree

[11] Romans 6:10, Hebrews 9:28, 10:14

[12] Romans 6:8, 2 Timothy 2:11

[13] the Church is in Christ like a sacrament or as a sign and instrument both of a very closely knit union with God and of the unity of the whole human race  Second Vatican Council: Dogmatic Constitution on the Church (Lumen Gentium)

[14] This definition of a sacrament comes from Saint Augustine

[15] These Churches [of the East], although separated from us, possess true sacraments, above all by apostolic succession, the priesthood and the Eucharist, whereby they are linked with us in closest intimacy.   Second Vatican Council – Decree on Ecumenism.

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