Church Life and Traditions: Monasticism and Religious Orders
The monastic life goes back a long way. Monks are people who seek to devote all their time to knowing God better and loving Him more. For that reason they leave the cities and go out into lonely places where it is quiet and they can think. As they go on in life they want to find lonelier and lonelier places so they can think even more. In the end people think these monks are really crazy going off by themselves and of course sometimes they are. On the other hand when you are quiet and when you are free from a lot of cares, when you don’t make enough money to pay taxes, and don’t have a wife to fight with, and when your heart is quiet, you suddenly realize that everything is extremely beautiful and that just by being quiet you can almost sense that God is right there not only with you but even in you. Then you realize that it is worth the trouble of going away where you don’t have to talk and mess around and make a darn fool of yourself in the middle of a lot of people who are running around in circles to no purpose. I suppose that is why monks go off and live in lonely places. Like me now …
Thomas Merton (Cistercian Monk, 1915-1968) provided this explanation in answer to a request from a Sixth Grader. (Thomas Merton: A Life in Letters)
By my monastic life and vows I am saying no to all the concentration camps, the aerial bombardments, the staged political trials, the judicial murders, the racial injustices, the economic tyrannies, and the whole socioeconomic apparatus which seems geared for nothing but global destruction in spite of all its fair words in favor of peace.
Thomas Merton: Choosing to Love the World: On Contemplation (2015)
In the Catholic tradition there is one principle distinction in the status of people within the church: clergy vs laity. The clergy are distinguished by ordination – a sacrament. The others are the laity. This distinction is not found in the earliest church but evolved in its early years to meet the needs of church communities. The beginning of this evolution is recorded in the Acts of the Apostles, where the followers of Jesus recognized quickly that the roles and organization (such as it was) of Jesus’ ministry could not continue unchanged after his death.[1]
We won’t address here the issues of how the role of the clergy has changed over the life of the church, nor the challenges that have been found throughout its history in the relationship between clergy and laity. This chapter focuses rather on simply explaining the current situation, which can be confusing for those brought up in the Catholic tradition, let alone for others coming to it from elsewhere.
Ordination has three “levels”: Deacon, Priest, Bishop (these arose fairly early in the life of the church – within first 100 years). Other categories/titles such as Archbishop and Cardinal are essentially administrative or functional distinctions – not a distinct religious status.[2]
So what of all the rest – monks, nuns, friars, etc – where do they fit in?
They are collectively termed “religious” – as in “religious life” and “religious orders”. They are distinguished by taking vows[3]. These vows have a special solemn character, but the people who take them (men and women) are still technically lay people, and have no special authority within the church – they are not part of the hierarchy. These days many male religious are also priests, but this was often not the case in earlier times. Some orders, such as the Dominicans, were initially required not to take Holy Orders (i.e. be ordained), while others (the Jesuits) were required to be ordained.
The fundamental vow for a religious (i.e. a person adopting the religious life, within a religious order) is “conversion of life” or “consecration of life” – setting oneself apart in dedication exclusively to the service of the Lord; note – not to the service of the Church. The Jesuit vow of service to the Pope is unique (and has a troubled history from the very beginning).
The other vows are usually Poverty, Chastity and Obedience, plus typically some specific form of service (care of the poor, the sick, teaching, etc). Monks are distinguished by a vow of stability – which binds them to a particular community in a specific place (i.e. a monastery), under the authority of an abbot. Friars are mendicant i.e. wandering – in direct contrast to monks.
Some Orders, notably Franciscans and Carmelites, have established “Third Orders” – First Orders being male religious, Second Orders female. Third Orders are lay people (“tertiaries”) who take some form of vow or promise binding them to the life and discipline of the Order but not to the full conversion of life required by regular members of the Order.
Every religious order is defined by a Rule or Constitution, which in modern times must be approved by the Vatican. This regulates the details of the life within the Order including how appointments are made, the type of work allowed and prohibited, the forms of communal prayer to be used, and often details such as dress and arrangements of living accommodation. All Orders were required to review their Rule or Constitution after the Second Vatican Council. For many the changes were dramatic and caused much dissension and difficulty in some Orders.
Orders may be male or female. In earlier times Orders might have members of both sexes and in the early Middle Ages it was not uncommon to have men and women within a single community, sometimes headed by an Abbot and sometimes by an Abbess. Typically male and female religious are titled Brother or Sister, but this is not universal. Since male religious may also be ordained, this gives rise to a terminologically curious distinction between “religious clergy” and “secular clergy”! The latter are priests who are not members of a Religious Order.
One distinctive feature of monastic life which has been adopted by most religious orders and is also required of ordained priests is a particular structure of daily prayer called the Office, fully the ‘Divine Office’ or Liturgy of the Hours. The exact content differs between Orders but the structure is common, with regular prayer sessions during the day (and in a few cases during the night), normally five of them, which include recitation of the psalms. In a monastery the Office is normally sung by the monks together, with some chants going back to the earliest music still in existence.
The other defining feature of monastic life was hospitality i.e. the command to welcome anyone who came to the door. This principle led to monasteries becoming a major source of social support particularly in the early Middle Ages when no other structure existed for this purpose. Later various lay associations evolved which also took on this role, particularly with regard to care of the sick (the early hospitals). Eventually these functions were largely taken on by the State, but monasteries today always have guest rooms available.
Universal Monasticism
Monasticism, considered as a choice of individuals to live a communal life, distinct from the surrounding society, in pursuit of a spiritual goal, is not unique to Christianity. It is particularly well known in Buddhist traditions, and also exists in Hinduism. Within Christianity it is very prevalent in the Orthodox traditions, where the monastic lifestyle is similar to the West but without the structure of Orders and Monastic Rules. In Western Christianity since the Reformation it has been largely found within the Roman Catholic tradition but does still exist within Protestant (particularly Anglican) traditions. The ecumenical communities at Taizé in France, and Iona, off the West Coast of Scotland on a very ancient Celtic monastic site, have become well known in recent years.
History of Monasticism
Old Testament Judaism provides evidence of early traditions of withdrawal from “normal” life to seek closer union with God. The Prophets are often recorded as spending time this way, and we see similar behavior from St John the Baptist. Communities such as the Essenes (recorded in the Dead Sea Scrolls) also withdrew from normal society.
In Christian tradition, monasticism started with the Desert Fathers of the 3rd and 4th Centuries. This lifestyle arose initially in Syria and Egypt with figures who became well known and venerated, such as St Antony (251-356). These were hermits, living a solitary life (known as eremitic monasticism).
The risks of the eremitical life were obvious from early on. There was a need to avoid pathological extremes of religious practice. The solitary life was, even in those days, not a common calling. Initially hermits formed loose associations in areas where a number had chosen to life, and the more famous hermits often gathered a circle around them. Gradually monastic communities emerged, with some level of regulation of a common life (cenobitic monasticism). The Rule of St Basil (356) was the first formalization of monastic life that we know of. This remains the basis of monastic life in the Orthodox Churches.
In the West the defining character was Saint Benedict (480-547). Benedict’s major foundation was at Monte Cassino, outside Rome, which also became famous many years later as the location of one of the major battles of World War II. The Rule of Saint Benedict remains the basis for Benedictine monasteries to this day, including the stricter form adopted by Cistercians. The core principle of the Rule is that monks live in a stable community under the authority of an Abbot, who is elected by the members of the community. Monks are expected to work for their upkeep and to engage in regular and frequent prayer – the Monastic Office. Traditionally monks were not ordained, and only recently has it become normal for the majority of monks also to be priests.
During the Middle Ages monasteries often became very wealthy as a result of their farming interests and Abbots were often powerful political figures, not infrequently in conflict with bishops. The criticism of the lifestyle of monks did not start with the Reformation. The Mendicant Orders were set up precisely in distinction to life of monks – mendicant means wandering, and these religious chose to bring their lifestyle to the community where it lived[4], rather than for people to come to monasteries for religious (and social) support, as was the expectation until that time. The Franciscans (1209) focused on poverty, rejecting the ownership of property which was the basis of monastic wealth. The Dominicans (1215) took preaching as their primary function. The other major mendicant orders still existence today are the Carmelites and the Augustinians.
The Society of Jesus (the Jesuits), founded by Saint Ignatius Loyola in the 1530’s, also followed a reforming path. Ignatius insisted on a high level of education for ministry, which was not the norm in his time, and was highly critical of the involvement of the church in worldly affairs. Despite the dedication of Jesuits to the Pope, the Order has been in frequent conflict with the papacy, from its suppression in the 1750s to recent conflicts over Liberation Theology.[5] The initial work of the Jesuits was in hospitals, followed by missionary activity. The work of education, for which they are now most famous, developed early, although it was not part of Ignatius’ original vision. The central feature of Jesuit life however is not a specific form of work, but the ideal of contemplative spirituality within an active lifestyle, as laid out in the “Spiritual Exercises” of Saint Ignatius. Although Jesuits typically live in communities these differ from monastic communities in that there is no vow of stability, on the contrary a Jesuit may be assigned anywhere and to any role at any time at the discretion of his superior.
Orders have continued to be formed by charismatic founders, typically focused on a particular service in a particular place, often some form of education, missionary work, or healthcare.[6] The most famous recent example is Mother Teresa of Calcutta, who founded her Missionaries of Charity to provide service to “the poorest of the poor”, initially in Calcutta but eventually throughout the world.
Monasticism continues to evolve, often with the creation of new foundations which may be ecumenical or inter-faith.[7] Some communities include married people. While these may differ in many ways from earlier monastic communities they share a common commitment to a life dedicated to service, in some way separated from the world as most people experience it, but also in dialog with this wider community.
Questions for Consideration
Footnotes (Click footnote number to return to text.)
[1] Acts 6:1-6
[2] Cardinals have the specific function of electing the Pope. They are appointed by the Pope and most are bishops, although that is not required. They have a titular link with a parish in Rome. They have no special authority within the ecclesiastic hierarchy.
[3] Each religious Order has a specific character, sometimes with unique vows, based on the particular service identified by the founder and the role of the Order in the life of the church and wider society. These cover an enormous range from complete withdrawal from the rest of society to full integration in specific professions, often teaching or hospital work. The establishment of an Order is controlled by the Vatican, and new Orders continue to be created although not now at the same rate as in the 18th and 19th Centuries.
[4] Not dissimilar in later times to Wesley’s critique of the Anglican Church and the foundation of Methodism.
[5] This viewpoint on Christian life arose particularly in South America and included an emphasis on involvement with and commitment to the poor. Such a perspective, while clearly founded in the teaching of Christ and the Hebrew Prophets, also had political implications which could be challenging to conservative forces. In a clear demonstration of the real-world impact of theology many priests and religious were killed during the conflicts in South America in the late 20th Century because they were seen as siding with the poor and therefore against established interests. Notable is Cardinal Romero of San Salvador who was murdered in 1980 by a right-wing death squad while saying mass.
The challenge of monasticism in the modern world can also be seen in the murder of the monks of Tibhirine in Algeria in 1996 (see here).
[6] There are today approximately 300 Religious Orders within the Roman Catholic Church.
[7] Sometimes following the ideas of Bede Griffiths, a Benedictine monk who lived in a Christian-Hindu ashram in India from 1968-1993